Chemistry Advances That Transformed the World

Not every discovery and molecule is made equally. Some have ruined the environment, saved billions of lives, or made the world more colorful. Here are some discoveries that change the world.

1. PENICILLIN (R-C9H11N2O4S)

Your life was probably spared by penicillin. Without it, a thorn prick or sore throat could rapidly turn fatal. The discovery of penicillin is usually attributed to Alexander Fleming, who made the illustrious observation in 1928 that a mold growing on his Petri dishes prevented the growth of nearby bacteria and therefore made the first antibiotic. Despite his greatest efforts, he was unable to extract any usable penicillin. The penicillin saga took a ten-year hiatus when Fleming gave up. Howard Florey, an Australian pharmacologist, and his team of chemists didn't discover how to sufficiently purify penicillin until 1939 and before the 1940s when penicillin became widely used, wounds and illnesses like syphilis were fatal; since then, antibiotics have saved an estimated 200 million lives.

However, due to the fact that World War II was still raging, there was a shortage of scientific equipment. As a result, the crew improvised a fully functional penicillin production facility out of bathtubs, milk churns, and bookcases. Unsurprisingly, the press was giddy about this new wonder medicine, but Florey and his colleagues were reluctant to garner attention. Fleming, however, seized the spotlight. When Margaret Hutchinson Rousseau, a chemical engineer, transformed Florey's Heath Robinson-like idea into a full-scale production facility, penicillin manufacture began in earnest in 1944.

2. World of Packaging: Plastic (Polyethylene)

You already know that plastic is used in practically everything, including toys, most of our clothes, and even most of the items in your kitchen and automobiles. Its primary use is in packagings, such as plastic bags, films, geomembranes, and containers like bottles. Do you, however, know who created them? The earliest known use of plastic was 3500 years ago. The earliest people to process natural rubber into balls, bands, and figurines were the Mesoamericans. The juice from the "Morning Glory Vine" was used to prepare the latex they had collected from the Panama Rubber Tree plant. Because it was more resilient than glass and could be used to create a wider variety of products, modern plastic first appeared during World War II when it was used for military purposes. Compound definitions can be found in our chemistry dictionary. Natural, organic substances like cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and, of course, crude oil are used to make plastic. However, Alexander Parkes created the first synthetic plastic, Parkesine (nitrocellulose), in Birmingham, England, in 1856. Parkes, an inventor, planned for this plastic to be applied to clothing made of fabric as a waterproof coating. While Parkes and his company fell out of business, his idea launched the plastics industry. Another plastic with a modest name, Bakelite, was developed in 1907 by American chemist Leo Baekeland. Bakelite was merely a pliable chemical compound manufactured from two additional chemicals. Later, with changes in chemical compositions, a variety of synthetic polymers have been created. Common synthetic polymers like polythene, polystyrene, and polyacrylates have carbon-carbon bonds making up their backbones, whereas polymers with carbon heteroatoms like polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, polysulfides, and polycarbonates have other elements (such as oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen) inserted along with their carbon-carbon bonds. Additionally, silicon may create compounds like this without requiring carbon atoms. Then, in 1933, chemists at the now-defunct chemical company ICI devised a completely new way of producing plastic. The same waxy substance that von Pechmann had seen caught their attention as they worked on high-pressure reactions. They first had trouble duplicating the effect until they realized that oxygen had gotten into the system during the initial response. In just two years, ICI developed a workable technology for creating ordinary plastic that is probably certainly readily available to you right now.

3. LCD Screens

LCD means liquid crystal display and it is the technology of the 21st century for electronics. Amazingly, there have been designs for flat-screen color screens since the late 1960s! When the British Ministry of Defense made the decision to switch out the large and expensive cathode ray tubes in its military vehicles for flat-screen televisions. It finally decided on a liquid crystals-based concept. Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) were already known to be feasible; the issue was that they only truly functioned at high temperatures. So, unless you're sitting in an oven, not of much use. The MoD asked George Gray at the University of Hull to find a solution to make LCDs work at more comfortable (and practical) temperatures in 1970. When he created the 5CB molecule, he accomplished exactly that. 90% of LCD devices worldwide contained 5CB by the late 1970s and early 1980s, and you can still find it in items like budget watches and calculators. In the meantime, 5CB derivatives enable the existence of phones, computers, and TVs.

4. Ammonia- NH3

Early in the 20th century, the world's expanding population ran out of ammonia before it could fertilize all of its crops. Today, an estimated two billion people do not go hungry thanks to the invention of the Haber process, a method for producing ammonia in large quantities. Each year, we generate 100 million tonnes of ammonia for use as fertilizer, but it is also a key component of explosives.

Fritz Haber submitted his patent on the "synthesis of ammonia from its elements" on October 13, 1908; for this invention, he was eventually given the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The Haber-Bosch process is the name given today to this reaction: Fritz Haber was the pioneer and laid the groundwork for high-pressure chemical engineering, but Carl Bosch later expanded it on an industrial scale and was recognized for it with the Nobel Prize in 1931. The ammonia production method that has been in use since then has the names of Haber and Bosch, who shared the Nobel Prize for their work. In fact, the Haber-Bosch method is thought to be the 20th century's most important invention. The Haber-Bosch process currently accounts for nearly 80% of the nitrogen in our bodies, making it the most likely contributing chemical to the population growth over the last 100 years. Therefore, it is said that this technology has saved and will likely continue to save billions of lives.

The Three Mile Island nuclear disaster

Accidents happen, but when they upset nature's delicate equilibrium or result in significant human suffering, they turn into disasters. Here I am going to write about one of the biggest catastrophes brought on by human activities in American history, "The Three Mile Island nuclear disaster".

The Three Mile Island power plant, located close to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, had the worst nuclear reactor disaster in American history on March 28, 1979. When coolant (the liquid that keeps a machine cool) escaped from the reactor core owing to a mix of mechanical failure and human mistake, no one was killed and very little radiation was spilled into the air.

About the Nuclear plant

The Three Mile Island (TMI) nuclear power plant is located in Pennsylvania, not far from Harrisburg. Two pressurized water reactors were present. Until its closure in 2019, TMI-1, an 880 MWe (or 819 MWe net) PWR, was one of the best-performing units in the USA. It went into operation in 1974. At the time of the disaster, TMI-2 had a 959 MWe (880 MWe net) capacity and was essentially brand new.

What happened that day?

A number of water pumps in the TMI-2 unit "tripped" at 4:00 in the morning of March 28, 1979. When the pumps failed, the water supply to the steam generators ceased, which led to an increase in the reactor coolant's temperature. Water that was rapidly heating up expanded as a result of the rising pressure. The pressurizer's top valve opened as it was intended to, but the pressure kept building. Just as it was intended to, the reactor "scrammed," and the control rods descended into the core to halt the nuclear fission reaction. When the pressure gradually returned to normal levels, the valve ought to have closed, but it didn't.

What might merely have been a minor annoyance was made worse by a confluence of mechanical and human faults. Because they feared the core "turning solid"—having too much water and losing control of pressure—they seized physical management of the water system. Alarms were sounding but no valuable information was given to the operator. Due to measuring devices sending erroneous data to the control room; technicians started keeping an eye on rising radiation readings at around 5:00 a.m. Around 6:30 a.m., an on-site emergency was declared. The facility remained in crisis for a few days after that, and eventually, radiation was purposely released into the atmosphere to release pressure within the system and prevent the potential of a hydrogen bubble explosion, which was then suspected but later disproved. 

Chain of Events

The reactor cooling system's pilot-operated relief valve (PORV) opened as it was meant to shortly after the shutdown. It ought to have shut down after about 10 seconds. But it remained open, dripping essential reactor coolant water into the drain tank for the coolant. Instruments showed the operators that a "close" signal was transmitted to the relief valve, which led them to believe the valve had closed. However, they lacked a tool for determining the valve's precise location. High-pressure injection pumps automatically injected replacement water into the reactor system in response to the loss of cooling water. Cooling water gushed into the pressurizer, boosting the water level while water and steam escaped through the relief valve.

In response, operators decreased the flow of replacement water. Their training had taught them that the only reliable indicator of the amount of cooling water in the system was the level of water in the pressurizer. They believed the reactor system was overloaded with water since they noticed an increase in the pressurizer level. According to their training, employees should use every effort to prevent the pressurizer from becoming flooded. If it filled, they wouldn't be able to control the cooling system's pressure, and it might even burst. The reactor's primary cooling system then started to produce steam. The pumps employed in the reactor cooling system vibrated when pumping a steam-and-water mixture. Operators turned off the pumps because the high vibrations may have destroyed them and rendered them useless. This put a stop to the reactor core's forced cooling. Because the pressurizer level remained high, the operators continued to believe the system was almost full of water. The fuel core of the reactor was exposed and heated up considerably more when the reactor cooling water boiled away. Due to the damage to the fuel rods, radioactive material was released into the cooling water.

To Read about: The Three Mile Island nuclear disaster

And lastly, workers shut a block valve between the relief valve and the pressurizer at 6:22 a.m. By taking this action, the relief valve-related coolant water loss was stopped. However, the core cooling system's water flow was obstructed by superheated steam and gases. Operators tried to pump more water into the reactor system throughout the morning in an effort to condense steam bubbles that they thought were obstructing the flow of cooling water. Operators tried to lower the pressure in the reactor system throughout the afternoon so that a low-pressure cooling system could be employed and emergency water supplies could be added to the system.

Finally, at about 8 o'clock, plant managers recognized they needed to restart the pumps in order to get water flowing through the core once more. Pressure in the reactor decreased as the temperature started to drop. Less than an hour separated the reactor from total meltdown. Although more than half of the core was damaged or in the process of melting, the core's protective shell was intact, and no radiation was leaking out. It appeared that the problem was over.

But on March 30, two days later, a bubble of extremely flammable hydrogen gas was found inside the reactor structure. When exposed core materials reacted with extremely hot steam two days prior, a bubble of gas resulted. Some of this gas had erupted on March 28 and some radiation had been dispersed into the environment. Plant staff members were not aware of the explosion at the time because it sounded like a ventilation door closing. Upon learning of the radioactive leak on March 30, locals were told to stay inside. As a precaution, Governor Thornburgh recommended: "pregnant women and pre-school age children to evacuate the region within a five-mile radius of the Three Mile Island facility until further notice." Experts were unsure whether the hydrogen bubble would cause further melting or even a massive explosion. As a result, the governor's attempt to prevent panic was successful; within days, more than 100,000 residents had left the nearby towns.

40 Years Later TMI Shut down on September 20, 2019

TMI-2 had a difficult time recovering from the mishap. Since then, TMI-1 has continued to function normally. The power plant started consistently and dependably losing money since it was initially built to run two cores, TMI-1 and TMI-2. It was revealed that the power plant would finally shut down in 2017 after the current owner, Exelon, was unable to persuade Pennsylvania state legislators to appropriate the required cash to maintain the power plant's competitiveness versus less expensive energy sources, like natural gas. The TMI-1 program ended formally on September 20, 2019. On the day of the closure, Exelon issued a statement in which it expressed sadness that "state legislation does not permit the ongoing operation of this safe and reliable source of carbon-free power" at a time when "our communities are seeking more clean energy to address climate change." Decades will pass throughout the decommissioning procedure, which is expected to cost at least $1 billion.

Health issues:

The acute health consequences described by certain locals and documented in two books cannot be explained by the official figures because they call for exposure to at least 100,000 millirems (100 rems) to the full body, which is 1000 times higher than the official estimates. Although there are many other possible reasons, the documented health impacts are consistent with high doses of radiation and analogous to the experiences of cancer patients receiving radiotherapy. Metal taste, erythema, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hair loss, farm, and wild animal deaths, and plant damage were some of the side effects. In Dauphin County, where the Three Mile Island plant is located, the death rate among infants under one year represented a 28 percent increase over that of 1978, and among infants under one month, the death rate increased by 54 percent. These local statistics demonstrated dramatic one-year changes among the most vulnerable. These figures were included in the 1981 version of physicist Ernest Sternglass' book Secret Fallout: low-level radiation from Hiroshima to Three-Mile Island. Sternglass is an expert in low-level radiation. The Pennsylvania Department of Health concluded that the TMI-2 disaster did not contribute to any local newborn or fetus deaths in its final 1981 report after looking at death rates in the 10-mile radius around TMI for the six months following the event.

As the Kemeny Commission had determined that this was the only effect on public health, scientific research continued in the 1980s but concentrated mainly on the mental health effects of stress. The TMI Public Health Fund eventually reviewed the data and supported a thorough epidemiological study by a team at Columbia University after a 1984 survey of 450 local residents by a local psychologist revealed acute radiation health effects (as well as 19 cancers among the residents in 1980–84 against an expected 2.6.

Other Chemical Disaster: Chernobyl Tragedy (Nuclear Annihilation )

Bhopal Disaster- Chemistry

Methyl isocyanate (MIC), a chemical, leaked from a pesticide facility owned by Union Carbide India Ltd. (UCIL) on December 2, 1984, turning the city of Bhopal into a massive gas chamber. India's first significant industrial tragedy. More than 600,000 workers were harmed and more than 15,000 individuals died as a result of at least 30 tonnes of methyl isocyanate gas. The Bhopal gas tragedy is regarded as the greatest industrial accident in history.

What caused the methyl isocyanate leak?

Three 68,000-liter liquid MIC storage tanks were located in Union Carbide India's Bhopal facility: E610, E611, and E619 MIC manufacture were underway and the tanks were being filled months prior to the accident. Each tank was pressurized with inert nitrogen gas and could not be filled more than 50% of the way. Each tank's liquid MIC might be blasted out thanks to the pressurization. However, one of the tanks (E610) was no longer able to withstand the pressure of nitrogen gas, making it impossible to pump liquid MIC out of it. Each of the tanks could hold no more than 30 tonnes of liquid MIC in accordance with the regulations. However, this tank weighed 42 tonnes. Due to this incident, UCIL was compelled to stop producing methyl isocyanate at Bhopal, and the plant was partially shut down for maintenance. On December 1, an attempt was made to repair the broken tank, but it proved unsuccessful. By that time, the majority of the safety systems at the factory that dealt with methyl isocyanate were broken. According to sources, water entered the failing tank on December 2 eve, causing a chemical reaction to go out of control. By night, the tank's pressure had multiplied five times. The effects of the MIC gas on the workers in the MIC region began to manifest by midnight. A few minutes later, the decision was made to stop the leak. The chemical reaction in the tank had, however, already reached a critical stage at that point. Within one hour, about 30 tonnes of MIC broke free from the tank and into the atmosphere. The majority of Bhopal people were exposed to the gas, which alerted them to the leak.

An alarm sounds before a calamity

Methyl isocyanate was used as an intermediary in the production of Sevin, a pesticide, at the UCIL factory in 1969. Trade unions in Bhopal raised concerns about contamination inside the facility in 1976. A few years later, a worker died a few hours after unintentionally inhaling a significant amount of poisonous phosgene gas. A journalist who was seeing the occurrences started looking into the facility and then published his findings in the local Bhopal newspaper with the headline "Wake up citizens of Bhopal, you are on the edge of a volcano." About 45 workers who had been exposed to phosgene were admitted to a hospital two years prior to the tragedy in Bhopal. There was leakage of phosgene, carbon tetrachloride, methyl isocyanate, and mono methylamine between 1983 and 1984.

To Read About: The Three Mile Island nuclear disaster

Effects of a leak of methyl isocyanate

The incident's correct treatment options were not known to the doctors. More than 600,000 workers were affected and over 15,000 individuals died as a result of the methyl isocyanate gas leak. Neonatal mortality and the stillbirth rate both rose by up to 300% and 200%, respectively. Trees and animals are also affected by gas leaks. The neighboring trees quickly become barren within a few days. Animal carcasses that were bloated had to be discarded. In the streets, people fled while throwing up and dying. The city's supply of crematoriums ran exhausted.

GOVT's response to the disaster in Bhopal

The Indian government had never before faced such a catastrophe. Immediately following the disaster, legal processes between India, UCC, and the US were initiated. In order to advocate victims' interests in court, the government passed the Bhopal Gas Leak Act in March 1985. The UCC initially offered India a $5 million assistance fund, but the government rejected it and requested $3.3 billion instead. In the end, a settlement outside of court was struck in February 1989, and Union Carbide agreed to pay $470 million in losses. The Supreme Court of India also established rules for the money, mandating that the deceased's relatives get between Rs 100,000 and Rs 300,000. Additionally, individuals who were totally or partially incapacitated were to get between Rs 50,000 and Rs 500,000, while those who had a temporary injury were to receive between Rs 25,000 and Rs 100,000. The top court urged UCIL to "voluntarily" support a hospital in Bhopal to care for the tragedy's victims. Seven former UCIL employees, all of whom were citizens of India, were found guilty of causing death by carelessness and given two years in prison in June 2010. They were eventually released on bond, though. Bhopal following the catastrophe of more than three decades.

UCC was successfully taken over by Dow Chemical Company in 2001, and as the legal disputes between India and the US continued, it became a wholly-owned subsidiary. Then, according to Dow, UCC was legally a new firm with new ownership and had no involvement in the catastrophe. Ingrid Eckerman quotes a sufferer as saying, "Death would have been a wonderful comfort," in his book The Bhopal Saga. To be a survivor is worse. There has been no resolution to the lawsuit thirty years later. Numerous survivors of the Bhopal gas disaster still struggle with a shortage of medical resources. Whatever was left inside the factory after it was shut down was sealed and stored there. Welfare organizations representing gas victims have been requesting its removal for years. There are numerous applications pending before the SC and high court to get the plant's poisonous leftovers removed.

What is MIC, or methyl isocyanate?

A colorless liquid called methyl isocyanate is used to create insecticides. When maintained properly, MIC is safe. The substance reacts with heat quite quickly. The chemicals in MIC interact with one another when exposed to water, producing a heat reaction. Although it is still used in pesticides, methyl isocyanate is no longer produced. The sole MIC storage facility that remained in existence today is at the Bayer CropScience facility in Institute, West Virginia.

Effects of methyl isocyanate chemical reaction on health

Ulcers, photophobia, respiratory problems, anorexia, chronic stomach discomfort, hereditary conditions, neuroses, decreased hearing and vision, impaired reasoning, and many other conditions are among the immediate health impacts. Chronic conjunctivitis, diminished pulmonary function, increased pregnancy loss, higher newborn mortality, increased chromosomal abnormalities, poor associative learning, and other conditions are long-term health impacts.

To Read About: Chemical Plant Explosions – 2005, Jilin

Bleaching Powder [ Bleach-Chemistry]

Bleach is a solid or liquid chemical that is used to lighten or take away the natural color of paper, textiles, and other fibers. The bleaching procedure is used in textile finishing to create white fabric, to get materials ready for additional treatments, or to get rid of discoloration that has happened in previous procedures. Because of its microbicidal qualities, bleach is also employed as a disinfectant. As bleaches, people frequently utilize chlorine, sodium hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite, and hydrogen peroxide. Bleaching powder is basic in character. It gives calcium chloride, chlorine, and water when bleaching powder reacts with hydrochloric acid.

An inorganic compound having the formula Ca(OCl)2 is calcium hypochlorite. It is the primary component of commercial bleaching powder, chlorine powder, and chlorinated lime products, which are used to treat water and as bleaching agents. Compared to sodium hypochlorite, this chemical is more stable and has more chlorine that is readily available. Despite the yellow appearance of commercial samples, it is a white solid. Due to its slow degradation in damp air, it has a strong chlorine odor. T.C.L. powder is another name for bleaching powder. Simply put, beaching powder is a mixture of lime and chlorine.

Fresh bleaching powder often contains 33% or more chlorine. Since bleaching powder is inherently unstable, its chlorine content decreases over time. Bleaching powder needs to be stored dry and out of direct sunlight in order to prevent chlorine loss. If the bleaching powder is packaged in a bag, it must be properly closed after use.

A laboratory test can determine the amount of chlorine present in the bleaching power.

When a very small amount of diluted acid is present, the bleaching powder reacts, releasing newly formed oxygen. The bleaching powder functions as both a bleaching and an oxidizing agent as a result of the release of the nascent oxygen.

The process of making bleaching powder:

In Bachmann's plant, bleaching powder is produced in the following ways:

The complete apparatus is set up to produce bleaching powder and includes a vertical cast-iron tower with a hopper at the top, two inlets near the base (one for chlorine and the other for hot air), and an exit for waste gases towards the top. Then, this tower is equipped with shelves that are positioned with spinning rakes at various heights. There are eight shelves altogether. The hopper is filled with slaked lime. It finally makes touch with chlorine, which is steadily flowing upward. Then, at the tower's base, in the barrel region, the bleaching powder is gathered. In short, Chlorine gas, which is a byproduct of the Chlor-alkali process, reacts with dry slaked lime (Ca(OCl2)) to create bleaching powder.

Conditions to be looked after during the manufacture: 

• The chlorine used should be dilute in nature. 
• The temperature should be maintained below 40°C.

Bleaching powder's characteristics:

1. The scent of chlorine is very noticeable in bleaching powder, which is a light yellowish powder.
2. Chlorine is created by a reaction with weak acids.
3. It can be dissolved in cold water. After dilution, the lime is left as an insoluble residue.
4. The chlorine from the bleaching powder is released when it reacts with an excess of a diluted substance, like diluted sulfuric acid. As a result, the chlorine created when diluted acid reacts with bleaching powder serves as a bleaching agent. Thus, the bleaching agent in bleaching powder is chlorine.

Bleaching Powder Applications

• It is employed in the textile sector as a bleaching agent for cotton and linen as well as for the laundry's use in bleaching soiled clothing. Bleaching powder is mainly used for removing colors from materials.
• Due to its potent oxidizing properties, it is employed as an oxidizer in numerous industries.
• It is employed as a disinfectant to purify water so that it can be consumed.
• Used in the papermaking business to bleach wood pulp.

A few of bleaching powder's negative consequences include:

1. Because bleaching powder fumes are so potent, breathing them in can have a variety of negative health effects.
2. The skin is severely corroded and irritated by it.
3. It might also cause lumps to develop in the eyes.
4. Human tissue could be burned both internally and externally.

Chemistry behind Digestion of Food

What happens after You eat?

All humans depend heavily on food for their survival. The meal is mechanically broken down into smaller bits after intake, and then through the action of enzymes, it is chemically digested. Chewing is merely a portion of the digestive process. Digestion enzymes break down food as it moves from your mouth into your digestive system, transforming it into more easily absorbed nutrients. Chemical digestion is the term for this disintegration. Your body wouldn't be able to take in nutrients from the food you eat without it.

As you now know, mechanical digestion is a fairly easy process. Food is physically broken down but its chemical composition is unaffected. Contrarily, chemical digestion is a sophisticated process that breaks down food into its chemical constituents, which are then absorbed to provide the body's cells with nutrition. 

What does chemical digestion serve?

Large amounts of food must be broken down during digestion into micronutrients that can be absorbed by cells. Peristalsis and chewing both aids in this but do not sufficiently reduce particle size. Chemical digestion can help with it. Different nutrients, including proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates are examples of large food molecules that need to be broken down into smaller subunits in order to be absorbed by the lining of the alimentary canal.

Monosaccharides are formed when polysaccharides, or carbohydrate sugars, are broken down.

Amino acids are formed through protein breakdown.

Fatty acids and monoglycerides are the byproducts of fat breakdown.

Nucleotides are formed from nucleic acids.

Your body wouldn't be able to absorb nutrients without chemical digestion, which would result in vitamin shortages and malnutrition. Certain digestive enzymes are deficient in some persons. For instance, individuals with lactose intolerance typically produce insufficient amounts of lactase, the enzyme needed to digest the lactose protein found in milk. 

What Places Experience Chemical Digestion?

Your digestive system undergoes chemical digestion. Some foods start to break down chemically while they are still in your mouth. Saliva has the chemical capacity to break down some big molecules, such as carbohydrates, but it struggles to digest proteins. Your small intestine is where the process is finished after continuing in your stomach. Your stomach is where proteins begin to be chemically digested. In the stomach, the digestion of fats and carbohydrates continues (lipids are the chemical components of fat). All of the food you've eaten is starting to break down as gastric acids are released from your stomach. Some medications, like aspirin and some types of alcohol, can also be absorbed into the stomach. Your small intestine handles the bulk of chemical digestion. Your stomach stores the broken-down food in an acidic liquid called chyme. The small intestine receives chyme one dose at a time.

How are carbs metabolized?

Carbohydrates start to break down as soon as food enters your mouth. As you chew food, the saliva produced by your salivary glands moistens the meal. The amylase enzyme, which is released by saliva, starts the breakdown of the sugars in the carbohydrates you're ingesting. After the meal has been chewed into tiny pieces, you then swallow it. Your esophagus carries the carbohydrates to your stomach. The food is referred to as chyme at this point. Before the chyme moves on to the next stage of digestion, your stomach produces acid to destroy the bacteria there. The duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine, receives the chyme after leaving the stomach. The pancreas releases pancreatic amylase as a result. The chyme is converted into dextrin and maltose by this enzyme. From there, lactase, sucrase, and maltase production in the small intestine wall starts. The sugars are subsequently broken down by these enzymes into monosaccharides, or single sugars. These sugars are the ones that the small intestine finally absorbs. After being absorbed, they are further digested by the liver and then stored as glycogen. The bloodstream carries other glucose throughout the body. The pancreas releases the hormone insulin, which enables the body to use glucose as fuel.

How are proteins metabolized?

Proteins are polymers made up of long chains of amino acids connected by peptide bonds. They are broken down into their basic amino acids during digestion. Typically, you eat between 15 and 20 percent of your total calories as protein.

Proteins are first broken down into smaller polypeptides by pepsin in the stomach, where HCl denatures the proteins. These smaller polypeptides are then transported to the small intestine to complete the process of protein digestion. Pancreatic enzymes, such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase, which each act on particular bonds in amino acid sequences, continue chemical digestion in the small intestine. The brush border's cells also release enzymes like aminopeptidase and dipeptidase, which further disassemble peptide chains.

How are lipids metabolized?

A balanced diet keeps lipid intake to no more than 35% of total calories. Triglycerides, which are composed of a glycerol molecule coupled to three fatty acid chains, are the most prevalent dietary lipids. Additionally, very few levels of phospholipids and dietary cholesterol are eaten. Lingual lipase, gastric lipase, and pancreatic lipase are the three lipases that break down lipids. But since the pancreas is the only organ that produces any significant amounts of lipase, almost all lipid digestion takes place in the small intestine. Each triglyceride is broken down by pancreatic lipase into two free fatty acids and a monoglyceride. Both short-chain (less than 10 to 12 carbons) and long-chain fatty acids are present in the fatty acids.

How are nucleic acids metabolized?

The majority of the foods you eat include the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. They are broken down by two different forms of pancreatic nuclease: deoxyribonuclease, which breaks down DNA, and ribonuclease, which breaks down RNA. Two intestinal brush border enzymes (nucleosidase and phosphatase) further break down the nucleotides created by this digestion into pentoses, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases that can be absorbed through the alimentary canal wall.

The meal enters the big intestine after your body has completed digesting it and absorbing its nutrients. The fecal matter is generated by this organ drawing water out of the digestive juices. The only components of your food left at this phase are those that your body was unable to digest or absorb. One food item that endures during the entire digestive process is fiber. Before they are naturally sent to your anus by contractions, feces can stay in your large intestine for one to two days.

Baking Chemistry

 Even if you might not consider chemistry when baking a cake, the procedure is undoubtedly founded in chemistry. Regardless of the type of food you bake, the basic ingredients are involved in a number of chemical processes that combine various materials to create the finished product.

Baking is undoubtedly a more specialized kind of food manufacturing than other, more well-known ones. However, 82% of all meals in the United States are prepared at home, and a sizable proportion of these necessitate the use of an oven or other dry heating gear, according to data by the National Purchase Diary Panel (NPD). This routine cooking technique takes a lot of effort and preparation to carry out.

Baking is chemically based since it depends on the interactions of different chemicals in ingredients. The science of baking can be reduced to a series of chemical processes. The definition of a chemical reaction, also known as a chemical change, is "a process in which one or more chemicals transform into new substances" (Buthelezi 1010). Protein binding, leavening, Maillard reactions, and caramelization are the four main reactions in baking (Baker).

Maillard Reactions

When proteins and carbohydrates are broken down and rearranged by high temperatures, Maillard reactions take place. These proteins and sugars can be obtained from flour alone or can be improved by adding eggs and sweets. The processes generate organic chemicals in the form of rings, which darken the surface of baked dough. Toasty and savory smells and flavor chemicals are also produced via Maillard reactions. Additionally, these substances interact with one another, creating even more intricate flavors and fragrances.

Agent of leavening

Baking powder's primary function is as a leavening agent. To add volume and lighten the texture of baked goods, a mixture of carbonate or bicarbonate and a weak acid is utilized. A substitute that can be used similarly is baking soda, which is also known to most people. In particular, when you're prepared to start baking and discover you're out of baking powder. But the chemistry that underlies it differs. Baking soda, or sodium bicarbonate, combines with the acidic ingredients in batters to release carbon dioxide, which causes the batter to expand and give it its distinctive texture and grain. Sodium bicarbonate is frequently mixed with calcium acid phosphate, sodium aluminum phosphate, or cream of tartar in baking powder formulations. 

By enlarging the air bubbles introduced into batters and dough by mixing, beating, whipping, stirring, and kneading, all chemical leaveners elevate and aerate them. The gluten structure generated in the batter traps these millions of bubbles, which are then inflated by the leavener when it is either activated by moisture or heat. To obtain a neutral pH, you typically want to balance the leavening system.

Protein fusion

Glutenin and gliadin, two proteins contained in flour, are used in baking to form protein bonds. When water is added to flour, as when forming the dough, these two proteins unite to form a link. Gluten is created when these two proteins bind to one another (Baker). Gluten will change into a thick, gooey, and elastic substance when used to make dough from wheat flour and water. As a result, the dough will be able to rise to many times its initial height and develop a light texture. So gluten is a key ingredient in baked goods because it gives the proper structure.

Caramelization flavors

The final chemical reaction to take place during baking is caramelization, which happens at around 356 degrees Fahrenheit. High heat triggers the reaction, which results in the release of water that condenses into steam as sugar molecules disintegrate. The early phases of caramelization result in the production of diacetyl, which gives butterscotch-flavored caramel its flavor. The next step is the production of rum-like esters and lactones. Last but not least, the creation of furan molecules results in a nutty flavor, while the creation of the molecule maltol results in a toasted flavor.

Love-Hormone-Chemistry

 “I love you without knowing how, or when, or from where. I love you simply, without problems or pride: I love you in this way because I do not know any other way of loving but this, in which there is no I or you, so intimate that your hand upon my chest is my hand, so intimate that when I fall asleep your eyes close.” – Pablo Neruda

One can define love as a set of feelings and actions emphasizing intimacy, passion, and commitment. It entails tenderness, proximity, safety, attraction, affection, and trust. Love has different levels of intensity and can evolve over time. It can lead to bad emotions like jealousy and stress, but it is also linked to a variety of positive emotions like happiness, enthusiasm, life satisfaction, and bliss. Here we will discuss love from the Hormonal (chemical) perspective. 

The brain's hypothalamus, which promotes the production of the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen from the testes and ovaries, is crucial in the feelings of love. Although both substances are frequently perceived as being "male" or "feminine," they both affect both men and women. As it turns out, almost everyone's libido is increased by testosterone. While higher estrogen level has a milder effect, some women claim that it increases their desire for sexual activity around the time of ovulation.

According to Fisher, dopamine, serotonin, testosterone, and estrogen are among the "chemical families" to which we all belong. People are drawn to partners whose personalities complement their own. A high-estrogen individual might be attracted to a high-testosterone type, for example.

The three stages of falling in love are distinct. Our bodies' levels of testosterone (for men) and estrogen (for women) are what fuel the initial emotion, lust. The second emotion, attraction, has a similar high to the addictive high that comes from some drugs or alcohol. The last stage is attachment, during which you could start to feel particularly connected and start formulating long-term plans.

Stage 1: The amounts of testosterone (in men) and estrogen (in women) in our bodies are what cause lust. This is similar to other terrestrial mammals in many ways. The need for sexual fulfillment is what fuels lust. This has an evolutionary basis in our need to procreate, a need that all living things share. By reproducing, organisms pass on their genes and help to maintain the genetic diversity of their species.

Stage 2: The feeling of attraction is comparable to that of the effects of some medications or alcohol. Falling in love can feel like an addictive thrill due to the feeling of euphoria and the release of a variety of chemicals in the brain, including dopamine (pleasure), adrenaline (fight or flight), and norepinephrine (alertness). When you first meet someone you like, adrenaline in particular causes your heart to accelerate, your palms to become clammy, and your cheeks to flush.

Dopamine

Dopamine is a particularly well-known participant in the brain's reward system and is released by the hypothalamus when we perform actions that make us feel good. In this instance, these activities include having sex and spending time with loved ones. During attraction, significant amounts of dopamine and the associated hormone norepinephrine are released. You can genuinely be so "in love" that you can't eat or sleep since these chemicals make us joyful, energetic, and euphoric, as well as causing decreased appetite and insomnia. Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenalin, is a substance that may seem familiar to you because it is a key component of the fight-or-flight response, which ramps up when we are under stress and keeps us alert. When people are shown a picture of someone they are strongly attracted to, as opposed to when they are shown a picture of someone they feel neutral towards, the brain's key "reward" areas, such as the ventral tegmental area and the caudate nucleus, fire like crazy. Finally, serotonin, a hormone known to affect hunger and mood, appears to decrease in response to attraction. Interestingly, obsessive-compulsive disorder patients also have low serotonin levels, which has led researchers to hypothesize that this is what explains the overwhelming infatuation that defines the early phases of love.

Stage 3: The production of oxytocin (the "cuddle" hormone), which occurs during Stage 3 of attachment, replaces dopamine and norepinephrine. At this point, you may start to feel particularly connected to one another and begin forming long-term plans.

Oxytocin

Oxytocin is frequently referred to as the "cuddle hormone." The hypothalamus also produces oxytocin, which is released in high amounts during intercourse, lactation, and childbirth. The fact that each of these events serves as a prelude to bonding may seem to make this seem like a rather odd collection of activities, not all of which are really joyful. It also demonstrates the significance of keeping attachment, lust, and attraction in their own domains: although we are attached to our close family, those other feelings have no place in that environment.

Love has the power to be both good and bad for you; it has the power to wake us up in the morning or make us never want to get up again. Even if I kept you here for another ten thousand pages, I'm not sure I could describe "love" for you. Everyone has the ability to determine what love is for themselves in the end. And if it's just hormones, for better or worse, maybe we can all have "chemistry" with just about anyone. But it's still up to the rest of you whether it progresses or not. Lastly, let's end with Nicholas Sparks quotation: "Love is like the wind; you can't see it, but you can feel it."

Cigarette-Cancer Awakening Agent

What is a cigarette? 

A cigarette is a thin piece of paper that has been rolled around a narrow cylinder of burnable material, usually tobacco, for smoking. The cigarette is lit at one end, which causes it to smolder; the smoke that results is then inhaled orally through the other end. The most popular way to consume tobacco is through cigarettes.

You likely already know that smoking can kill you; in fact, the habit kills 50% of smokers who don't give up. But are you truly aware of the entire situation? Do you know the number of harmful chemicals found in cigarettes or how they get there?

Why do cigarettes contain so many chemicals?

Many substances, including cadmium and lead, are absorbed by the tobacco plant from the soil it is grown in. As tobacco leaves dry, additional substances known as tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) form. To enhance flavor and nicotine absorption, still more chemicals are added while making cigarettes.

Cigarettes contain about 600 different ingredients. Cigarettes emit more than 7,000 chemicals when they are burned. At least 69 of these substances have been linked to cancer, and many of them are toxic. Many of these chemicals are also present in consumer goods, but they carry warning labels, like the packaging for rat poison. While the danger of the toxins in these products is made known to the public, there is no similar warning for the toxins in tobacco smoke. Anyone who breathes air contaminated with cigarette smoke runs the risk of becoming sick. You are exposed to these substances when you smoke cigarettes. Cigarettes are carcinogenic in nature. Anything that can start or worsen cancer is considered a carcinogen. There are about 70 chemicals in cigarettes that have been linked to cancer. These consist of  Nicotine, formaldehyde, Tobacco-specific nitrosamines, Cumene, Nickel (a metallic element), Beryllium (a toxic metal), Cadmium (a toxic metal), Polonium-210 (a radioactive chemical element), 1,3–Butadiene (a hazardous gas), etc. Nicotine, the major addictive substance in cigarettes is the poison used in pesticides.

What happens when you smoke? 

Within seconds of inhaling nicotine, it reaches the brain. Nicotine increases the release of neurotransmitters, brain chemicals that help control mood and behavior. One of these neurotransmitters, dopamine, is released in the brain's reward center and results in feelings of pleasure and a lifted mood. You need more nicotine to feel good the more you smoke. Nicotine quickly ingrains itself into your routine and influences your habits and emotions. 

It is well known that not everyone puffs on their cigarettes in the same way. The delivery of smoke constituents to the smoker is significantly influenced by differences in smoking habits, including puff volume, number of puffs, and whether the ventilation holes are blocked. Each cigarette is consumed differently by each smoker depending on the time of day, their level of stress, and how long it has been since their last nicotine fix. Depending on the specific events taking place at the time, the smoker will alter the number of puffs taken, the depth of the puff, and the degree to which ventilation holes are blocked. In addition to emphysema and chronic bronchitis, smoking also increases the risk of developing cancer, heart disease, stroke, lung conditions, diabetes, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Smoking also raises the risk of developing tuberculosis, some eye conditions, and immune system issues, such as rheumatoid arthritis.

Lastly, Smoking also endangers the health of those nearby. Compared to people who don't live with a smoker, nonsmoking spouses and partners of smokers have a higher risk of heart disease and lung cancer. Children who have smoking parents are more likely to experience colds, ear infections, and worsening asthma. No matter how long you've smoked, giving it up can be good for your health. You can overcome your dependence on nicotine, though it isn't simple. There are numerous treatments that work. Ask your doctor for assistance.

Liquid of Your life- Water

Can You Imagine Life without Water?

Water is a chemical. Because pure water is homogeneous throughout its structure, it is a pure chemical. It is denoted by H2O. It is composed of identical molecules (H2O), each of which has the same atoms combined and arranged in the same way (with the same proportion of hydrogen to oxygen).

Amazingly, water is a substance. All kinds of organisms benefit from its presence in terms of life and growth, whereas those that lack it suffers from the opposite. It is the only substance that naturally occurs on the planet in all three states—solid, liquid, and gas—and makes up 80% of its surface. Its composition is remarkably straightforward for a substance of such importance. It is the liquid of life.

Chemical Structure of Water

Two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom make up the structure of water. Electrostatic attraction is what draws them to one another. The oxygen atom is negatively charged, whereas the hydrogen atom is positively charged. In water, opposites do indeed attract. This charge attraction causes water to be attracted to other water. the same way that atoms are put together. One water molecule's hydrogen will form a bond with another molecule's oxygen atom.

Water is available in three states as:-

1. Liquid

The easiest way to see the water is when it is liquid. After all, it covers the majority of the planet. Water can only change states when a few specific conditions are met, and water can only stay in its current state as long as those conditions are met. For instance, for water to remain a liquid, the temperature must be between 32 and 212 degrees Fahrenheit. Precipitation is the main way that liquid water reaches the Earth's surface. Water vapor will condense into liquid water in this process. This results in the formation of clouds, which then brings about precipitation and the return of water to us.

2. Solid (Ice)

Ice is simply water that has frozen over. Water expands as it freezes, encasing air molecules as it does so. In actuality, it is the only known non-metallic substance that will expand in this way. Ice will float in a glass of water for this reason. It can become ice without necessarily being in a liquid state. Water vapor has the ability to condense into ice crystals, such as frost. From snow and hail to icebergs and icicles, ice can be found in the environment in many different forms.

3. Gas (H2O Vapor)

When water is in its gaseous state, it is a vapor. There are several ways for this to happen, but it mostly does so at temperatures higher than 212 degrees Fahrenheit. Water boils above this point and transforms into steam, a vapor that can be seen. Below this temperature, water can also exist, as when you can see your breath on a chilly day. Evaporation, or the absorption of liquid water into the atmosphere, is a further process by which water can turn into vapor. A wet surface is allowed to dry would be an illustration of this. That water simply evaporated into the air around it rather than dissipating.

Properties of waters 

On Earth, in addition to the three states, water has a variety of special qualities. Water doesn't shrink as it gets colder like the majority of liquids do. At about 39 degrees Fahrenheit, water stops shrinking, and as the temperature drops further, the process reverses and it begins to expand. Cohesion is a different property that describes how water is drawn to other water. It has a high specific heat capacity.

Chemistry of Psychotropic Drugs (Chemotherapy of Mind)

The brain is thought to contain 100 billion neurons. Neurotransmitters are molecules that serve as "chemical messengers," carrying messages along neuronal pathways in the brain. A neurotransmitter is released by the first (sending) neuron into the synaptic cleft, a tiny space between neurons, where it binds with receptors on the second neuron. According to the saying, the neurotransmitter "fits into the receptor like a key into a lock." The second (receiving) neuron's firing can either be inhibited by this binding action or caused to fire. An inhibitory response reduces the activity of the neuronal network, while an excitatory response moves the message along the neuronal pathway. The chemical messenger is then "transported" back into the first neuron to complete the message and is then saved for later use.

In research, Hyman observed that all psychotropic drugs interfere with the brain's normal neurotransmitter function. However, the brain has a number of feedback mechanisms to monitor the activity of its neurotransmitters, and in response to the drug's disruption of that function, it undergoes a number of "compensatory adaptations." The brain strives to continue operating normally. For instance, the brain reduces its own serotonergic activity when a drug increases serotonin levels. The brain increases its dopaminergic activity if a drug blocks dopamine receptors and so on. According to Hyman, the brain is now functioning in a way that is "qualitatively as well as quantitatively different from the normal state" at the conclusion of this compensatory process. The key concept here is that all psychiatric medications interfere with neurotransmitter function, which causes compensatory changes that result in abnormal brain function. So, 

What are Psychotropic Drugs?

Psychotropic drugs are those that alter mood, perceptions, and behavior. It is also known as Psychoactive or Psychopharmaceutical. Psychotropic drugs, especially when used in conjunction with psychotherapy, can be effective tools in the treatment of conditions such as borderline personality disorder (BPD), anxiety, bipolar disorder, depression, and schizophrenia. A broad class of medications known as psychotropics is used to treat a wide range of ailments. They function by modifying the concentrations of neurotransmitters such as dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), norepinephrine, and serotonin in the brain. The psychotropic drugs fall into five main categories:

1. Anti-anxiety medication

2. Antidepressants

3. Antipsychotics

4. Stabilizers of mood 

5. Stimulants

Some psychotropic drugs can have very severe side effects and necessitate special monitoring by medical professionals.

How does it work?

As already mentioned, Psychotropic drugs are used to treat symptoms of mental illness such as mood swings, rage, hallucinations/delusions, and other issues that can interfere with therapy. With these symptoms under control, you can concentrate on learning skills to cope with and manage your mental health. These medications work by affecting the balance of neurotransmitters in your body, such as serotonin, dopamine, and -Aminobutyric acid (GABA). These chemical messengers transport signals between your organs to help them function properly. They assist neurons in communicating with one another in the brain to control mood, concentration, perception, and other aspects of brain function. They are specific to the cells that they attack.

How quickly do psychotropic drugs start working?

You may notice side effects right away in some cases, but you may not feel the full beneficial effects for several weeks or even months. If you believe your medication isn't working, consult your doctor to discuss alternatives. Never discontinue a psychotropic medication on your own; this can be dangerous and unpleasant. To avoid this, your doctor will know how to gradually reduce your dosage.

Note:- Never take psychotropic drugs (or any other prescription drugs that have not been prescribed to you) unless you have a prescription.

To Read About: Cigarette-Cancer Awakening Agent

Soap:- Cleansing Agent

Soap:- Cleansing agent

Fatty acid and an alkali metal hydroxide react chemically to produce soap, a cleaning agent. A fatty acid reacts chemically with an alkali metal hydroxide such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, to create soap, a cleaning agent. Because of its exceptional capacity to enclose oil particles, soap has the special power to disperse them in water and make them simple to rinse away. Since ancient times, soap has been used as a washing agent, a mild antibacterial, and an ingestible remedy for some poisonings. 

The general chemical formula for soap is RCOOX. The X on the periodic table of elements stands for an alkali metal, which is an element found in the first column. The R stands for a chain of hydrocarbons made up of anywhere between 8 and 22 linked carbon atoms that are encircled by hydrogen atoms. 

Features And Applications Of Soap

Soaps have good biodegradability and are great cleaning agents. The propensity of the carboxylate ion to react with Ca+ and Mg+ ions in hard water is a significant problem that limits their general use. The end result is a salt that is not water-soluble and can settle on clothing and other surfaces. Hard water plaques also cause rings in sinks and bathtubs and bleach fabric colors. The inefficiency of soaps in acidic environments is another drawback. In these situations, soap salts are inefficient as cleaning agents because they do not separate into their individual ions. Although soaps are usually used for cleaning, they also work well as ingestible antidotes for heavy metal or mineral acid poisoning as well as mild antiseptics. Polishes, inks, paints, and lubricating oils all utilize special metallic soaps as additions since they are manufactured from soap and heavier metals.

How Does Soap Work?

On our hands, soap eliminates germs rather than killing them.

The molecules of soap are uniformly distributed in a solution of soap and water. However, because the hydrocarbon ions in the soap are attracted to one another and aggregate into spheres known as micelles, this system is not a real solution. The hydrophilic heads of the molecules remain on the exterior of these micelles to interact with water, while the water-incompatible molecular tails are inside these micelles. Oil is absorbed by these micelles as tiny particles when it is added to this environment. After that, it can be rinsed off. Use soap and be thorough when washing your hands for the best results. Create a lather because, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the friction helps remove debris and oils from your skin (CDC). Depending on how dirty your hands are, you should scrub for whatever long it takes to sing "Happy Birthday" twice, which is often at least 20 seconds, according to health experts. Don't forget to scrape between your fingernails as well. Germs love that spot; it's good real estate. After washing, make sure to towel- or air-dry your clothes. There is no established optimal procedure for drying, however, the CDC notes that moist hands are more likely to spread germs than dry ones.

In water, soap partially separates into its component ions since it is a salt. The RCOO- is the soap molecule's active ion. This ion's two ends exhibit diverse behaviors. The hydrophilic (loving water) carboxylate end (-COO-) is referred to as the "head" of the ion. The "tail" of the molecule refers to the lipophilic (oil-loving) hydrocarbon part. The distinctive surface and solubility properties of soaps and other surfactants are the results of their particular molecular structure. The molecules of soap are uniformly distributed in a solution of soap and water. However, because the hydrocarbon ions in the soap are attracted to one another and aggregate into spheres known as micelles, this system is not a real solution. The hydrophilic heads of the molecules remain on the exterior of these micelles to interact with water, while the water-incompatible molecular tails are inside these micelles. Oil is absorbed by these micelles as tiny particles when it is added to this environment. After that, it can be rinsed off.

Is soap that is antibacterial even better? 

Ingredients like triclosan or triclocarban, which are hydrophobic compounds that can penetrate bacterial cell walls and kill the bacteria, are added to antibacterial soaps. Although it may sound amazing, research has revealed that antibacterial soaps are not any more successful at eradicating bacteria than normal soaps. Antibacterial soaps were no longer permitted to be promoted to the general public after an FDA rule was announced in 2016. Consumers might believe that antibacterial washes are more efficient at halting the transmission of germs, but there is no scientific proof to support this, according to Dr. Janet Woodcock, head of the FDA's Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER).

Corrosion, Rusty Iron!

One of the most common phenomena we see in our daily lives is corrosion. You've probably noticed that some iron objects are covered with an orange or reddish-brown colored layer at some point. The formation of rust on iron is perhaps the most well-known example of corrosion. When iron is exposed to oxygen and water, it rusts (oxidizes). Corrosion is commonly defined as the electrochemical degradation of metals. Corrosion can be seen in the formation of rust on iron, tarnish on silver and the blue-green patina that develops on copper. 

In general, corrosion is a process that converts refined metals into more stable compounds such as metal oxides, metal sulfides, or metal hydroxides. Similarly, iron rusting involves forming iron oxides due to the action of atmospheric moisture and oxygen. When we look at the science behind corrosion, we can say that it is a spontaneous/irreversible process in which metals transform into more stable chemical compounds such as oxides, sulfides, hydroxides, and so on. In this post, we will delve deeper into the concept of corrosion and understand its various factors such as its meaning, types, prevention, and more.

What exactly is corrosion? 

It is essentially defined as a natural process that causes pure metals to transform into undesirable substances when they react with substances such as water or air. This reaction causes metal damage and disintegration, beginning with the exposed portion of the metal and spreading to the entire bulk of the metal. Corrosion is typically an unfavorable phenomenon because it interferes with the desirable properties of the metal. Iron, for example, is known to have high tensile strength and rigidity (especially alloyed with a few other elements). Rusting, on the other hand, causes iron objects to become brittle, flaky, and structurally unsound. Corrosion, on the other hand, is a diffusion-controlled process that occurs primarily on exposed surfaces. As a result, in some cases, attempts are made to reduce the activity of the exposed surface and increase the corrosion resistance of a material. Passivation and chromate conversion are examples of processes used. Some corrosion mechanisms, on the other hand, are not always visible and are even less predictable.

Are All Metals Corrodible?

Metals higher in the reactivity series, such as iron and zinc, corrode easily, whereas metals lower in the reactivity series, such as gold, platinum, and palladium, do not corrode. The reason for this is that corrosion involves the oxidation of metals. The tendency to oxidize decreases as we move down the reactivity series.

Corrosion rate depends on:-

Metals are exposed to air containing gases such as CO2, SO2, SO3, and others increasing the chance of corrosion of metals. Metals exposed to moisture, particularly salt water have a high corrosion rate. The acid in the atmosphere: Acids can easily accelerate the corrosion process. As the temperature rises, so does corrosion. The nature of the first oxide layer formed also determines the corrosion rate: some oxides, such as Al2O3, form an insoluble protective layer that can prevent further corrosion. Others, such as rust, easily crumble and expose the remaining metal.

How could it affect our life?

Corrosion can have varying degrees of impact on a wide range of things. As a result, it primarily wastes natural resources. Furthermore, it can lead to dangerous situations such as building structures becoming weak and unstable, accidents caused by corroded parts, and other unwelcome failures such as cracked pipelines, bridge collapses, transport vehicle crashes, and other disasters. The annual global cost of metallic corrosion is estimated to be more than $2 trillion, but experts believe that proper corrosion protection could save 25 - 30% of this cost. Poorly planned construction projects can result in corroded structures that must be replaced, wasting natural resources and contradicting global sustainability concerns. Corrosion can also result in safety concerns, loss of life, additional indirect costs, and reputational damage. That's why it is critical to monitor and prevent corrosion at all costs.

Prevention:-

Corrosion is prevented by protective coatings. Metals can be protected from corrosion by applying protective coatings that act as a barrier to water and oxygen. This coating can be applied by oil greasing, painting, or electroplating with a different metal. Electroplating is accomplished through the electrolysis process. Electrolysis allows for the application of a thin layer of metal to an object. The object is at the cathode, and the plating metal is at the anode. The electrolyte is made up of plating metal ions. Aluminium oxide shields the metal. Aluminium oxide is a coating that is applied to aluminum. This oxide layer on the surface of aluminium protects the metal from further corrosion. Electroplating has a variety of applications. Metals are less likely to corrode or be damaged when they are electroplated. It also enhances the aesthetics and appearance of metals, such as silver-plated cutlery.