Chemistry Involved About Burger

 It's possible that you may not consider the chemistry involved in creating a juicy burger until you take a bite. Yet, the chemistry of hamburgers is actually a fascinating and intricate subject that involves a variety of chemical interactions.

The burger

The patty, which is commonly produced from ground beef, is the foundation of every burger. Proteins, lipids, and amino acids are just a few of the chemical compounds found in beef that give it flavor, texture, and nutritional value. These molecules undergo a number of chemical interactions throughout the cooking process of the beef, creating new chemicals. The Maillard process, which happens when the beef's amino acids and sugars interact, is one of the most significant reactions.

A number of intricate chemical processes take place during the Maillard reaction, creating new chemicals that give the burger its distinct flavor and scent. The burger's rich, savory flavor comes from a range of volatile chemical compounds, including aldehydes, ketones, and pyrazines.

The bun

Another significant burger ingredient is the bun, which also contains a range of organic compounds that enhance the burger's flavor and texture. The flour used to make the bun is typically wheat, which has a wide range of proteins, starches, and other ingredients.

These chemicals undergo a number of chemical reactions during baking that result in the creation of new molecules. The Maillard process, which takes place when the wheat flour's sugars and amino acids interact, is one of the most significant reactions.

Aldehydes, ketones, and pyrazines are only a few of the volatile organic substances that are created during the Maillard reaction and give the bun its distinct flavor and aroma. The bun's texture is also crucial, and this is partly because of the gluten included in wheat flour. The complex protein gluten gives the bun its elasticity and aids in its shape retention.

The garnishes

A burger's toppings might come in a vast variety, but they all contain different organic molecules that add to the burger's overall flavor and texture. For instance, cheese has a distinct flavor and texture because it contains a range of lipids, proteins, and other substances.

A number of chemical processes take place when the cheese is melted on top of the patty, changing these molecules into new ones. The caramelization of the lactose in the cheese is one of the most significant processes because it produces a number of volatile organic compounds that give the cheese its savory, rich flavor.

Comparable organic compounds, including vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants, are present in vegetables like lettuce and tomato, adding to the burger's nutritional worth. Particularly when they are fresh and ripe, these molecules can also contribute to the flavor and texture of the burger.

The condiments

Finally, the condiments on a burger can also contain a variety of organic molecules that contribute to the overall flavor and texture of the burger. Ketchup, for example, contains a variety of sugars, acids, and other compounds that give it its sweet, tangy taste.

When the ketchup is applied to the burger, a variety of chemical reactions occur that transform these compounds into new compounds. One of the most important reactions is the caramelization of the sugars present in the ketchup, which results in the formation of a variety of volatile organic compounds that give it its characteristic flavor and aroma.

Similarly, mustard contains a variety of volatile organic compounds, such as isothiocyanates and sulfoxides, that give it its pungent taste and aroma. These compounds are formed when the mustard seeds are ground and mixed with vinegar, which causes a variety of chemical reactions to occur.

The chemistry of burgers is a complex and fascinating topic that involves a wide range of chemical reactions. From the Maillard reaction that occurs during the cooking of the patty and bun, to the formation of new compounds in the toppings and condiments, every element of a burger has its own unique chemistry that contributes to its overall flavor and texture.

While the chemistry of burgers is certainly interesting from an academic perspective, it also has practical implications. For example, understanding the chemical reactions that occur during cooking can help chefs to create burgers that are more flavorful and appealing to the palate. Similarly, understanding the chemical composition of different ingredients can help food manufacturers to develop new and innovative products that meet the changing tastes and preferences of consumers.

However, it's also important to note that while the chemistry of burgers is fascinating, it's only one piece of the puzzle when it comes to understanding the broader impact of our food choices. From the environmental impact of beef production, to the health implications of consuming large amounts of red meat, there are many factors to consider when it comes to making informed and responsible food choices.

In conclusion, the chemistry of burgers is a fascinating and complex topic that highlights the intricate relationship between food, science, and culture. While it's easy to take a simple pleasure like biting into a juicy burger for granted, understanding the chemistry that goes into making it can help us to appreciate the complexity and beauty of the world around us.

Chemistry of Gasoline

 The fossil fuel known as crude oil, which was created over millions of years from the remains of ancient sea animals, is the main ingredient of gasoline, commonly referred to as petrol. It is a complicated blend of chemicals that improve its performance as well as organic molecules made of hydrogen and carbon atoms and hydrocarbons.

Depending on where it comes from, gasoline's chemical makeup can change, although it normally consists of a blend of cyclic hydrocarbons, straight-chain hydrocarbons, and branched-chain hydrocarbons. Octane (C8H18), a straight-chain hydrocarbon having eight carbon atoms and 18 hydrogen atoms, is the most prevalent hydrocarbon in gasoline.

In an internal combustion engine, burning gasoline causes a series of chemical processes that result in the production of energy in the form of heat and motion. The following equation can be used to model how gasoline burns:

C8H18 + 12.5O2 -> 8CO2 + 9H2O + heat

Octane and oxygen interact in this reaction to create carbon dioxide, water, and heat. The engine of a car is propelled by the heat energy created when gasoline burns, which moves the wheels.

The octane rating of gasoline, which is a gauge of its capacity to withstand knocking or pinging during combustion, determines how effective it is as a fuel. When the fuel-air mixture in an engine cylinder ignites too soon, it can cause knocking. This sudden increase in pressure can harm the engine. Because high-octane gasoline less frequently results in knocking, engines may run at higher compression ratios and generate greater power.

Together with hydrocarbons, gasoline also has a number of additives that improve its functionality and safeguard the engine. Detergents, which assist keep the fuel injectors and intake valves clean and stop deposits from accumulating, are one of the most crucial additions in gasoline. Additional additions include corrosion inhibitors, which shield the engine from rust and other types of corrosion, and antioxidants, which stop the fuel from oxidizing and producing dangerous substances.

The refining process

The production of gasoline begins with the refining of crude oil, a process that involves separating the various components of the oil by their boiling points. Crude oil is heated in a distillation tower, which causes the lighter, more volatile components to vaporize and rise to the top, where they are condensed and collected.

The initial distillation of crude oil yields a mixture of hydrocarbons called naphtha, which is then further processed to produce gasoline. The naphtha is first treated with hydrogen to remove impurities and increase its octane rating. It is then subjected to a process called catalytic cracking, which breaks the large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones that are more useful as gasoline.

The resulting gasoline is then blended with various additives to improve its performance and protect the engine. The composition of the additives can vary depending on the intended use of the gasoline. For example, gasoline used in colder climates may contain more volatile components to improve cold-start performance, while gasoline used in high-altitude areas may contain less oxygen to compensate for the lower air pressure.

Environmental impact

While gasoline is an important fuel for transportation and other applications, its production and use have significant environmental impacts. The combustion of gasoline produces carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change, as well as other harmful pollutants such as nitrogen oxides and particulate matter.

In addition to the emissions produced during combustion, the production of gasoline also generates significant amounts of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. The refining process consumes large amounts of energy and produces emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, as well as various air pollutants.

To address these environmental impacts, efforts are underway to develop alternative fuels and improve the efficiency of gasoline-powered vehicles. Biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel, can be produced from renewable sources such as crops and waste materials, and they have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants. Hybrid and electric vehicles are also becoming increasingly popular as they produce little to no emissions during operation, although the production of the electricity used to power these vehicles can still have environmental impacts.

In addition to alternative fuels and vehicle technologies, there are also efforts underway to improve the efficiency of gasoline engines. Advances in engine design, such as direct injection and turbocharging, can increase fuel efficiency and reduce emissions. Additionally, efforts are being made to develop more efficient and environmentally friendly refining processes, such as using renewable energy sources and reducing waste and emissions.

Lastly, Gasoline is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and additives that is an important fuel for transportation and other applications. The chemical composition of gasoline can vary depending on its source, and its efficiency as a fuel depends on its octane rating. While gasoline is a widely used and convenient fuel, its production and use have significant environmental impacts, including greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. Efforts are underway to develop alternative fuels and improve the efficiency of gasoline-powered vehicles, as well as to reduce the environmental impact of the refining process.

Chemical Pollution in China: What The Heck's Going On?

 Did you know that the Yellow River, one of China’s most famous water sources, is now almost completely useless due to pollution? Did you also know that China has some of the worst air in the world and is facing an extremely severe water crisis as a result? Non-profit environmental organization The Nature Conservancy has recently ranked China as the third worst polluted country in the world. What exactly is going on here? Let us take a look at what we know about chemical pollution in China and everything we don’t...

What is Chemical Pollution?

Chemical pollution, or pollution caused by chemicals, is a type of pollution caused by the release of chemicals into the environment. Chemicals can be released into the environment through the use of pesticides, herbicides, or other chemicals. It can also come from the production of goods like paint, dyes, and fragrances.

Why is China so polluted?

China has long been plagued by pollution. We are not just talking about air pollution either. Water pollution has been a massive problem for decades. Environmental conservation has not been a strong suit for the Chinese government. When you take into account the sheer size of the country and its population, the government has done a decent job at maintaining the environment. However, there are a few things that have caused China’s pollution problem to become so severe.

What Are the Worst Forms of Chemical Pollution in China?

For starters, China leads the world in carbon dioxide emissions. The country is home to 15 of the 20 most polluted cities in the world. There has even been an “airpocalypse” before. The majority of China’s pollution comes from the burning of fossil fuels, including coal. China has been burning an excessive amount of coal for decades. The government has invested heavily in this cheap source of energy. However, the country’s dependence on coal has come at the cost of its environment. Burning coal produces massive amounts of pollutants. In addition to the burning of fossil fuels, China has a significant problem with water pollution. As we mentioned earlier, the Yellow River is almost completely unusable due to pollution. Most of this pollution is caused by the mining of raw materials like coal and iron.

Image Source: Unsplash

Water Pollution in China

Because of its massive population, China has a serious issue with water pollution. The country has almost no water that is considered safe to drink. There are a few different sources of water pollution in China. First and foremost, the government has done a poor job at regulating its industries. Some industries have polluted water sources with harmful chemicals and pesticides, leading to tainted water. In addition, China has a significant problem with nutrient runoff in its waterways. Fertilizer runoff from agriculture has led to eutrophication in many of China’s rivers and lakes. This has led to many waterways being choked with algae and unable to support aquatic life.

Air Pollution in China

China’s air pollution problem is well documented and well known throughout the world. The country’s air pollution is so severe that it has become a major health concern. Air pollution has been linked to a number of different health issues, including premature death, asthma, and lung disease. The majority of China’s air pollution comes from the burning of fossil fuels, especially coal. In fact, the country is the world’s largest investor in coal energy. However, the Chinese government has recently announced plans to invest in renewable energy sources. They are hoping to reduce their dependence on coal.

Summary

As you can see, chemical pollution in China is a major problem. There have been some efforts to reduce this pollution, but they have had limited success. If China wishes to continue to grow as a nation, it must take action against chemical pollution and other environmental concerns. Only then will the country be able to protect and improve its environment.

The Facts

The Facts The Chinese government has not been forthcoming about the state of the environment in China. Most Chinese citizens do not even realize how bad things have gotten. This is why it is so important to get accurate information from outside sources. The only way we can fight back against pollution is if we know just how bad it has become.

The Myths

The Myths Many people believe that China’s pollution problem is largely solved. They believe the Chinese government has taken action against pollution and is now handling the issue. These people are very mistaken. China’s pollution problem is only getting worse. While the government has taken some small steps to reduce pollution, they have done very little. In fact, many groups are criticizing the government for not doing enough. China has been under fire from the rest of the world for its lack of action against pollution.

Why It All Matters?

Why It All Matters While it is easy to become desensitized to chemical pollution, it is something that mustn’t be taken lightly. These types of pollutants have been linked with a number of issues, including premature death, asthma, and lung disease. They have also been shown to have a significant impact on aquatic life in the country. This is something that will impact the entire world if it is not taken care of.

What Can We Do?

What Can We Do? There are a few things that individuals can do to protect themselves from chemical pollution in China. Firstly, we can support groups like The Nature Conservancy. They use donations to fund research into pollution around the world. We must do all that we can to help protect China’s environment from chemical pollution. Only then will the country be able to truly protect its ecosystem.

Chemistry of Plastics

What is Plastic?

The Greek term "plastikos", which indicates it may be molded or formed, is where the word "plastic" originates. Any synthetic or semi-synthetic organic polymer is considered plastic. In other words, while additional elements may be present, carbon and hydrogen are always present in plastics. While all polymers are not plastic, all plastics are polymers. Chains of connected monomer subunits make up plastic polymers. A homopolymer is created when two identical monomers are combined. To create copolymers, several monomers join together. Both homopolymers and copolymers can have branched or straight chains. While almost any organic polymer can be used to make plastic, petrochemicals are the primary source of industrial plastic. Thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers are the two forms of plastic. The term "plastic" refers to a substance's capacity for deformation without breaking. Almost always, colorants, plasticizers, stabilizers, fillers, and reinforcements are added to the polymer used to produce plastic. The chemical make-up, chemical characteristics, mechanical characteristics, and price of plastic are all impacted by these additives. 

Leo Baekeland created Bakelite in 1907, which was the first fully synthetic plastic. The term "plastics" was also his invention. In recent decades, the manufacture of plastics has increased steadily worldwide. Among other things, plastics enable us to use electronics, insulate buildings, preserve food, and increase the fuel efficiency of automobiles. However, the vast amount of plastics consumed in our society has a negative impact on the environment and wildlife, creates large amounts of garbage, and has a significant carbon footprint associated with production.

Well, Chemical compounds can be turned into plastics. Isn't it like magic? Obviously not.  The very real union of engineering, energy, and raw materials—all brought together through chemistry—leads to the creation of plastics.  Although plastics can be highly sophisticated materials, comprehending their fundamental structure is simple. Here's a quick overview of how chemists enable modern polymers. 

Chemistry of Plastics: Production of Plastic

Chemists start with a variety of elements (atoms including carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and other atoms) sourced from natural resources to create today's plastics. Do you still have in mind that beautiful periodic table of chemical elements that contains the components of everything on earth? That is the list of ingredients of plastics.

To create molecules, which are only two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds, chemists mix different atoms. These molecules are typically referred to as monomers for creating plastics. The process of joining these monomers together to form a chain or network is known as polymerization. And the finished products are known as polymers.

Thermoplastics and Thermosets: The Science of Plastics

The polymer is known as a thermoplastic if the monomers combine together and are lined up in a chain (like a string of pearls). This plastic acts something like an ice cube: it repeatedly melts when heated and solidifies when cooled. A thermoplastic is an example, such as polypropylene (the material used frequently in butter tubs).

The polymer is referred to as a thermoset if the monomers form a three-dimensional network. This plastic has similar behavior to an egg in that it cannot go back to its goopy, liquid condition after it has "cured" and set. An illustration of a thermoset is an epoxy from the hardware store that cures and hardens after application. Thermosets can be particularly durable since they are made of a three-dimensional network of monomers. For instance, thermoset plastics are used to create the tires on your car (often called synthetic rubber). Thermoplastics are also durable, although they are frequently employed in less demanding applications, such as lightweight soft drink bottles that are not exposed to extreme heat and friction like tires.

Constant Evolution of Chemistry of Plastics: 

Chemists (along with other intelligent individuals) have developed numerous methods over time to mix components to create new polymers... and even to combine polymers. The molecules can be fashioned with varied qualities depending on what we need: sticky or slippery or lightweight or soft or hard or foamy or stretchy or … well, you get the point. That is why plastics are utilized in so many practical everyday items, such as spatulas, automobile bumpers, medical implants, and garment textiles.

And this is just the beginning; chemists are continually coming up with brand-new, inventive polymers that will help make things like airplanes lighter, hearts beat more powerfully, food keeps fresher, homes more energy-efficient, and other things.

Examples of Plastics 

The acronyms for the chemical formulas of plastics frequently used are :

• PP: Polypropylene
• PS: Polystyrene
• HDPE, or high-density polyethylene
• LDPE, or low-density polyethylene
• PET or PETE stands for polyethylene terephthalate.
• PVC, or polyvinyl chloride

Use of Plastics:

1. Materials made of different elements, including carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, and sulfur, are referred to as "plastics."
2. Modern technology employed in the space program, bulletproof jackets, and even prosthetic limbs heavily rely on plastic items and materials.
3. By minimizing waste, cutting greenhouse gas emissions, and preserving energy at home, at work, and on the road, plastics assist us in protecting the environment. Plastic packaging allows us to ship more products with less packing material, extending the shelf life of fresh foods and beverages and minimizing food and packaging waste.
4. Plastics lighten vehicles, which can significantly impact pollutants and fuel economy. Additionally, lightweight plastics can significantly increase a car's miles per gallon, which can save drivers money at the pump.
5. Strong, lightweight plastics help us do more with less, which improves our quality of life while also promoting sustainability in a variety of ways.
6. In addition to lowering heating and cooling costs, plastic insulation, sealants, and other building materials are greatly improving the energy efficiency of our homes. 

Most pure polymers are non-toxic and insoluble in water. But many of the compounds used in plastics are hazardous and could contaminate the environment. Phthalates are a couple of harmful additive examples. When heated, non-toxic polymers may also break down into chemicals. Growing public knowledge of the pervasiveness of plastic pollution has recently influenced public opinion and prepared the path for more aggressive regulatory intervention in this area. The OECD Global Plastics Outlook publications aim to assist and provide information for these initiatives.

Chemistry Advances That Transformed the World

Not every discovery and molecule is made equally. Some have ruined the environment, saved billions of lives, or made the world more colorful. Here are some discoveries that change the world.

1. PENICILLIN (R-C9H11N2O4S)

Your life was probably spared by penicillin. Without it, a thorn prick or sore throat could rapidly turn fatal. The discovery of penicillin is usually attributed to Alexander Fleming, who made the illustrious observation in 1928 that a mold growing on his Petri dishes prevented the growth of nearby bacteria and therefore made the first antibiotic. Despite his greatest efforts, he was unable to extract any usable penicillin. The penicillin saga took a ten-year hiatus when Fleming gave up. Howard Florey, an Australian pharmacologist, and his team of chemists didn't discover how to sufficiently purify penicillin until 1939 and before the 1940s when penicillin became widely used, wounds and illnesses like syphilis were fatal; since then, antibiotics have saved an estimated 200 million lives.

However, due to the fact that World War II was still raging, there was a shortage of scientific equipment. As a result, the crew improvised a fully functional penicillin production facility out of bathtubs, milk churns, and bookcases. Unsurprisingly, the press was giddy about this new wonder medicine, but Florey and his colleagues were reluctant to garner attention. Fleming, however, seized the spotlight. When Margaret Hutchinson Rousseau, a chemical engineer, transformed Florey's Heath Robinson-like idea into a full-scale production facility, penicillin manufacture began in earnest in 1944.

2. World of Packaging: Plastic (Polyethylene)

You already know that plastic is used in practically everything, including toys, most of our clothes, and even most of the items in your kitchen and automobiles. Its primary use is in packagings, such as plastic bags, films, geomembranes, and containers like bottles. Do you, however, know who created them? The earliest known use of plastic was 3500 years ago. The earliest people to process natural rubber into balls, bands, and figurines were the Mesoamericans. The juice from the "Morning Glory Vine" was used to prepare the latex they had collected from the Panama Rubber Tree plant. Because it was more resilient than glass and could be used to create a wider variety of products, modern plastic first appeared during World War II when it was used for military purposes. Compound definitions can be found in our chemistry dictionary. Natural, organic substances like cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt, and, of course, crude oil are used to make plastic. However, Alexander Parkes created the first synthetic plastic, Parkesine (nitrocellulose), in Birmingham, England, in 1856. Parkes, an inventor, planned for this plastic to be applied to clothing made of fabric as a waterproof coating. While Parkes and his company fell out of business, his idea launched the plastics industry. Another plastic with a modest name, Bakelite, was developed in 1907 by American chemist Leo Baekeland. Bakelite was merely a pliable chemical compound manufactured from two additional chemicals. Later, with changes in chemical compositions, a variety of synthetic polymers have been created. Common synthetic polymers like polythene, polystyrene, and polyacrylates have carbon-carbon bonds making up their backbones, whereas polymers with carbon heteroatoms like polyamides, polyesters, polyurethanes, polysulfides, and polycarbonates have other elements (such as oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen) inserted along with their carbon-carbon bonds. Additionally, silicon may create compounds like this without requiring carbon atoms. Then, in 1933, chemists at the now-defunct chemical company ICI devised a completely new way of producing plastic. The same waxy substance that von Pechmann had seen caught their attention as they worked on high-pressure reactions. They first had trouble duplicating the effect until they realized that oxygen had gotten into the system during the initial response. In just two years, ICI developed a workable technology for creating ordinary plastic that is probably certainly readily available to you right now.

3. LCD Screens

LCD means liquid crystal display and it is the technology of the 21st century for electronics. Amazingly, there have been designs for flat-screen color screens since the late 1960s! When the British Ministry of Defense made the decision to switch out the large and expensive cathode ray tubes in its military vehicles for flat-screen televisions. It finally decided on a liquid crystals-based concept. Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) were already known to be feasible; the issue was that they only truly functioned at high temperatures. So, unless you're sitting in an oven, not of much use. The MoD asked George Gray at the University of Hull to find a solution to make LCDs work at more comfortable (and practical) temperatures in 1970. When he created the 5CB molecule, he accomplished exactly that. 90% of LCD devices worldwide contained 5CB by the late 1970s and early 1980s, and you can still find it in items like budget watches and calculators. In the meantime, 5CB derivatives enable the existence of phones, computers, and TVs.

4. Ammonia- NH3

Early in the 20th century, the world's expanding population ran out of ammonia before it could fertilize all of its crops. Today, an estimated two billion people do not go hungry thanks to the invention of the Haber process, a method for producing ammonia in large quantities. Each year, we generate 100 million tonnes of ammonia for use as fertilizer, but it is also a key component of explosives.

Fritz Haber submitted his patent on the "synthesis of ammonia from its elements" on October 13, 1908; for this invention, he was eventually given the 1918 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. The Haber-Bosch process is the name given today to this reaction: Fritz Haber was the pioneer and laid the groundwork for high-pressure chemical engineering, but Carl Bosch later expanded it on an industrial scale and was recognized for it with the Nobel Prize in 1931. The ammonia production method that has been in use since then has the names of Haber and Bosch, who shared the Nobel Prize for their work. In fact, the Haber-Bosch method is thought to be the 20th century's most important invention. The Haber-Bosch process currently accounts for nearly 80% of the nitrogen in our bodies, making it the most likely contributing chemical to the population growth over the last 100 years. Therefore, it is said that this technology has saved and will likely continue to save billions of lives.

The Three Mile Island nuclear disaster

Accidents happen, but when they upset nature's delicate equilibrium or result in significant human suffering, they turn into disasters. Here I am going to write about one of the biggest catastrophes brought on by human activities in American history, "The Three Mile Island nuclear disaster".

The Three Mile Island power plant, located close to Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, had the worst nuclear reactor disaster in American history on March 28, 1979. When coolant (the liquid that keeps a machine cool) escaped from the reactor core owing to a mix of mechanical failure and human mistake, no one was killed and very little radiation was spilled into the air.

About the Nuclear plant

The Three Mile Island (TMI) nuclear power plant is located in Pennsylvania, not far from Harrisburg. Two pressurized water reactors were present. Until its closure in 2019, TMI-1, an 880 MWe (or 819 MWe net) PWR, was one of the best-performing units in the USA. It went into operation in 1974. At the time of the disaster, TMI-2 had a 959 MWe (880 MWe net) capacity and was essentially brand new.

What happened that day?

A number of water pumps in the TMI-2 unit "tripped" at 4:00 in the morning of March 28, 1979. When the pumps failed, the water supply to the steam generators ceased, which led to an increase in the reactor coolant's temperature. Water that was rapidly heating up expanded as a result of the rising pressure. The pressurizer's top valve opened as it was intended to, but the pressure kept building. Just as it was intended to, the reactor "scrammed," and the control rods descended into the core to halt the nuclear fission reaction. When the pressure gradually returned to normal levels, the valve ought to have closed, but it didn't.

What might merely have been a minor annoyance was made worse by a confluence of mechanical and human faults. Because they feared the core "turning solid"—having too much water and losing control of pressure—they seized physical management of the water system. Alarms were sounding but no valuable information was given to the operator. Due to measuring devices sending erroneous data to the control room; technicians started keeping an eye on rising radiation readings at around 5:00 a.m. Around 6:30 a.m., an on-site emergency was declared. The facility remained in crisis for a few days after that, and eventually, radiation was purposely released into the atmosphere to release pressure within the system and prevent the potential of a hydrogen bubble explosion, which was then suspected but later disproved. 

Chain of Events

The reactor cooling system's pilot-operated relief valve (PORV) opened as it was meant to shortly after the shutdown. It ought to have shut down after about 10 seconds. But it remained open, dripping essential reactor coolant water into the drain tank for the coolant. Instruments showed the operators that a "close" signal was transmitted to the relief valve, which led them to believe the valve had closed. However, they lacked a tool for determining the valve's precise location. High-pressure injection pumps automatically injected replacement water into the reactor system in response to the loss of cooling water. Cooling water gushed into the pressurizer, boosting the water level while water and steam escaped through the relief valve.

In response, operators decreased the flow of replacement water. Their training had taught them that the only reliable indicator of the amount of cooling water in the system was the level of water in the pressurizer. They believed the reactor system was overloaded with water since they noticed an increase in the pressurizer level. According to their training, employees should use every effort to prevent the pressurizer from becoming flooded. If it filled, they wouldn't be able to control the cooling system's pressure, and it might even burst. The reactor's primary cooling system then started to produce steam. The pumps employed in the reactor cooling system vibrated when pumping a steam-and-water mixture. Operators turned off the pumps because the high vibrations may have destroyed them and rendered them useless. This put a stop to the reactor core's forced cooling. Because the pressurizer level remained high, the operators continued to believe the system was almost full of water. The fuel core of the reactor was exposed and heated up considerably more when the reactor cooling water boiled away. Due to the damage to the fuel rods, radioactive material was released into the cooling water.

To Read about: The Three Mile Island nuclear disaster

And lastly, workers shut a block valve between the relief valve and the pressurizer at 6:22 a.m. By taking this action, the relief valve-related coolant water loss was stopped. However, the core cooling system's water flow was obstructed by superheated steam and gases. Operators tried to pump more water into the reactor system throughout the morning in an effort to condense steam bubbles that they thought were obstructing the flow of cooling water. Operators tried to lower the pressure in the reactor system throughout the afternoon so that a low-pressure cooling system could be employed and emergency water supplies could be added to the system.

Finally, at about 8 o'clock, plant managers recognized they needed to restart the pumps in order to get water flowing through the core once more. Pressure in the reactor decreased as the temperature started to drop. Less than an hour separated the reactor from total meltdown. Although more than half of the core was damaged or in the process of melting, the core's protective shell was intact, and no radiation was leaking out. It appeared that the problem was over.

But on March 30, two days later, a bubble of extremely flammable hydrogen gas was found inside the reactor structure. When exposed core materials reacted with extremely hot steam two days prior, a bubble of gas resulted. Some of this gas had erupted on March 28 and some radiation had been dispersed into the environment. Plant staff members were not aware of the explosion at the time because it sounded like a ventilation door closing. Upon learning of the radioactive leak on March 30, locals were told to stay inside. As a precaution, Governor Thornburgh recommended: "pregnant women and pre-school age children to evacuate the region within a five-mile radius of the Three Mile Island facility until further notice." Experts were unsure whether the hydrogen bubble would cause further melting or even a massive explosion. As a result, the governor's attempt to prevent panic was successful; within days, more than 100,000 residents had left the nearby towns.

40 Years Later TMI Shut down on September 20, 2019

TMI-2 had a difficult time recovering from the mishap. Since then, TMI-1 has continued to function normally. The power plant started consistently and dependably losing money since it was initially built to run two cores, TMI-1 and TMI-2. It was revealed that the power plant would finally shut down in 2017 after the current owner, Exelon, was unable to persuade Pennsylvania state legislators to appropriate the required cash to maintain the power plant's competitiveness versus less expensive energy sources, like natural gas. The TMI-1 program ended formally on September 20, 2019. On the day of the closure, Exelon issued a statement in which it expressed sadness that "state legislation does not permit the ongoing operation of this safe and reliable source of carbon-free power" at a time when "our communities are seeking more clean energy to address climate change." Decades will pass throughout the decommissioning procedure, which is expected to cost at least $1 billion.

Health issues:

The acute health consequences described by certain locals and documented in two books cannot be explained by the official figures because they call for exposure to at least 100,000 millirems (100 rems) to the full body, which is 1000 times higher than the official estimates. Although there are many other possible reasons, the documented health impacts are consistent with high doses of radiation and analogous to the experiences of cancer patients receiving radiotherapy. Metal taste, erythema, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hair loss, farm, and wild animal deaths, and plant damage were some of the side effects. In Dauphin County, where the Three Mile Island plant is located, the death rate among infants under one year represented a 28 percent increase over that of 1978, and among infants under one month, the death rate increased by 54 percent. These local statistics demonstrated dramatic one-year changes among the most vulnerable. These figures were included in the 1981 version of physicist Ernest Sternglass' book Secret Fallout: low-level radiation from Hiroshima to Three-Mile Island. Sternglass is an expert in low-level radiation. The Pennsylvania Department of Health concluded that the TMI-2 disaster did not contribute to any local newborn or fetus deaths in its final 1981 report after looking at death rates in the 10-mile radius around TMI for the six months following the event.

As the Kemeny Commission had determined that this was the only effect on public health, scientific research continued in the 1980s but concentrated mainly on the mental health effects of stress. The TMI Public Health Fund eventually reviewed the data and supported a thorough epidemiological study by a team at Columbia University after a 1984 survey of 450 local residents by a local psychologist revealed acute radiation health effects (as well as 19 cancers among the residents in 1980–84 against an expected 2.6.

Other Chemical Disaster: Chernobyl Tragedy (Nuclear Annihilation )

Bhopal Disaster- Chemistry

Methyl isocyanate (MIC), a chemical, leaked from a pesticide facility owned by Union Carbide India Ltd. (UCIL) on December 2, 1984, turning the city of Bhopal into a massive gas chamber. India's first significant industrial tragedy. More than 600,000 workers were harmed and more than 15,000 individuals died as a result of at least 30 tonnes of methyl isocyanate gas. The Bhopal gas tragedy is regarded as the greatest industrial accident in history.

What caused the methyl isocyanate leak?

Three 68,000-liter liquid MIC storage tanks were located in Union Carbide India's Bhopal facility: E610, E611, and E619 MIC manufacture were underway and the tanks were being filled months prior to the accident. Each tank was pressurized with inert nitrogen gas and could not be filled more than 50% of the way. Each tank's liquid MIC might be blasted out thanks to the pressurization. However, one of the tanks (E610) was no longer able to withstand the pressure of nitrogen gas, making it impossible to pump liquid MIC out of it. Each of the tanks could hold no more than 30 tonnes of liquid MIC in accordance with the regulations. However, this tank weighed 42 tonnes. Due to this incident, UCIL was compelled to stop producing methyl isocyanate at Bhopal, and the plant was partially shut down for maintenance. On December 1, an attempt was made to repair the broken tank, but it proved unsuccessful. By that time, the majority of the safety systems at the factory that dealt with methyl isocyanate were broken. According to sources, water entered the failing tank on December 2 eve, causing a chemical reaction to go out of control. By night, the tank's pressure had multiplied five times. The effects of the MIC gas on the workers in the MIC region began to manifest by midnight. A few minutes later, the decision was made to stop the leak. The chemical reaction in the tank had, however, already reached a critical stage at that point. Within one hour, about 30 tonnes of MIC broke free from the tank and into the atmosphere. The majority of Bhopal people were exposed to the gas, which alerted them to the leak.

An alarm sounds before a calamity

Methyl isocyanate was used as an intermediary in the production of Sevin, a pesticide, at the UCIL factory in 1969. Trade unions in Bhopal raised concerns about contamination inside the facility in 1976. A few years later, a worker died a few hours after unintentionally inhaling a significant amount of poisonous phosgene gas. A journalist who was seeing the occurrences started looking into the facility and then published his findings in the local Bhopal newspaper with the headline "Wake up citizens of Bhopal, you are on the edge of a volcano." About 45 workers who had been exposed to phosgene were admitted to a hospital two years prior to the tragedy in Bhopal. There was leakage of phosgene, carbon tetrachloride, methyl isocyanate, and mono methylamine between 1983 and 1984.

To Read About: The Three Mile Island nuclear disaster

Effects of a leak of methyl isocyanate

The incident's correct treatment options were not known to the doctors. More than 600,000 workers were affected and over 15,000 individuals died as a result of the methyl isocyanate gas leak. Neonatal mortality and the stillbirth rate both rose by up to 300% and 200%, respectively. Trees and animals are also affected by gas leaks. The neighboring trees quickly become barren within a few days. Animal carcasses that were bloated had to be discarded. In the streets, people fled while throwing up and dying. The city's supply of crematoriums ran exhausted.

GOVT's response to the disaster in Bhopal

The Indian government had never before faced such a catastrophe. Immediately following the disaster, legal processes between India, UCC, and the US were initiated. In order to advocate victims' interests in court, the government passed the Bhopal Gas Leak Act in March 1985. The UCC initially offered India a $5 million assistance fund, but the government rejected it and requested $3.3 billion instead. In the end, a settlement outside of court was struck in February 1989, and Union Carbide agreed to pay $470 million in losses. The Supreme Court of India also established rules for the money, mandating that the deceased's relatives get between Rs 100,000 and Rs 300,000. Additionally, individuals who were totally or partially incapacitated were to get between Rs 50,000 and Rs 500,000, while those who had a temporary injury were to receive between Rs 25,000 and Rs 100,000. The top court urged UCIL to "voluntarily" support a hospital in Bhopal to care for the tragedy's victims. Seven former UCIL employees, all of whom were citizens of India, were found guilty of causing death by carelessness and given two years in prison in June 2010. They were eventually released on bond, though. Bhopal following the catastrophe of more than three decades.

UCC was successfully taken over by Dow Chemical Company in 2001, and as the legal disputes between India and the US continued, it became a wholly-owned subsidiary. Then, according to Dow, UCC was legally a new firm with new ownership and had no involvement in the catastrophe. Ingrid Eckerman quotes a sufferer as saying, "Death would have been a wonderful comfort," in his book The Bhopal Saga. To be a survivor is worse. There has been no resolution to the lawsuit thirty years later. Numerous survivors of the Bhopal gas disaster still struggle with a shortage of medical resources. Whatever was left inside the factory after it was shut down was sealed and stored there. Welfare organizations representing gas victims have been requesting its removal for years. There are numerous applications pending before the SC and high court to get the plant's poisonous leftovers removed.

What is MIC, or methyl isocyanate?

A colorless liquid called methyl isocyanate is used to create insecticides. When maintained properly, MIC is safe. The substance reacts with heat quite quickly. The chemicals in MIC interact with one another when exposed to water, producing a heat reaction. Although it is still used in pesticides, methyl isocyanate is no longer produced. The sole MIC storage facility that remained in existence today is at the Bayer CropScience facility in Institute, West Virginia.

Effects of methyl isocyanate chemical reaction on health

Ulcers, photophobia, respiratory problems, anorexia, chronic stomach discomfort, hereditary conditions, neuroses, decreased hearing and vision, impaired reasoning, and many other conditions are among the immediate health impacts. Chronic conjunctivitis, diminished pulmonary function, increased pregnancy loss, higher newborn mortality, increased chromosomal abnormalities, poor associative learning, and other conditions are long-term health impacts.

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Chemistry behind Digestion of Food

What happens after You eat?

All humans depend heavily on food for their survival. The meal is mechanically broken down into smaller bits after intake, and then through the action of enzymes, it is chemically digested. Chewing is merely a portion of the digestive process. Digestion enzymes break down food as it moves from your mouth into your digestive system, transforming it into more easily absorbed nutrients. Chemical digestion is the term for this disintegration. Your body wouldn't be able to take in nutrients from the food you eat without it.

As you now know, mechanical digestion is a fairly easy process. Food is physically broken down but its chemical composition is unaffected. Contrarily, chemical digestion is a sophisticated process that breaks down food into its chemical constituents, which are then absorbed to provide the body's cells with nutrition. 

What does chemical digestion serve?

Large amounts of food must be broken down during digestion into micronutrients that can be absorbed by cells. Peristalsis and chewing both aids in this but do not sufficiently reduce particle size. Chemical digestion can help with it. Different nutrients, including proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and carbohydrates are examples of large food molecules that need to be broken down into smaller subunits in order to be absorbed by the lining of the alimentary canal.

Monosaccharides are formed when polysaccharides, or carbohydrate sugars, are broken down.

Amino acids are formed through protein breakdown.

Fatty acids and monoglycerides are the byproducts of fat breakdown.

Nucleotides are formed from nucleic acids.

Your body wouldn't be able to absorb nutrients without chemical digestion, which would result in vitamin shortages and malnutrition. Certain digestive enzymes are deficient in some persons. For instance, individuals with lactose intolerance typically produce insufficient amounts of lactase, the enzyme needed to digest the lactose protein found in milk. 

What Places Experience Chemical Digestion?

Your digestive system undergoes chemical digestion. Some foods start to break down chemically while they are still in your mouth. Saliva has the chemical capacity to break down some big molecules, such as carbohydrates, but it struggles to digest proteins. Your small intestine is where the process is finished after continuing in your stomach. Your stomach is where proteins begin to be chemically digested. In the stomach, the digestion of fats and carbohydrates continues (lipids are the chemical components of fat). All of the food you've eaten is starting to break down as gastric acids are released from your stomach. Some medications, like aspirin and some types of alcohol, can also be absorbed into the stomach. Your small intestine handles the bulk of chemical digestion. Your stomach stores the broken-down food in an acidic liquid called chyme. The small intestine receives chyme one dose at a time.

How are carbs metabolized?

Carbohydrates start to break down as soon as food enters your mouth. As you chew food, the saliva produced by your salivary glands moistens the meal. The amylase enzyme, which is released by saliva, starts the breakdown of the sugars in the carbohydrates you're ingesting. After the meal has been chewed into tiny pieces, you then swallow it. Your esophagus carries the carbohydrates to your stomach. The food is referred to as chyme at this point. Before the chyme moves on to the next stage of digestion, your stomach produces acid to destroy the bacteria there. The duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine, receives the chyme after leaving the stomach. The pancreas releases pancreatic amylase as a result. The chyme is converted into dextrin and maltose by this enzyme. From there, lactase, sucrase, and maltase production in the small intestine wall starts. The sugars are subsequently broken down by these enzymes into monosaccharides, or single sugars. These sugars are the ones that the small intestine finally absorbs. After being absorbed, they are further digested by the liver and then stored as glycogen. The bloodstream carries other glucose throughout the body. The pancreas releases the hormone insulin, which enables the body to use glucose as fuel.

How are proteins metabolized?

Proteins are polymers made up of long chains of amino acids connected by peptide bonds. They are broken down into their basic amino acids during digestion. Typically, you eat between 15 and 20 percent of your total calories as protein.

Proteins are first broken down into smaller polypeptides by pepsin in the stomach, where HCl denatures the proteins. These smaller polypeptides are then transported to the small intestine to complete the process of protein digestion. Pancreatic enzymes, such as trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase, which each act on particular bonds in amino acid sequences, continue chemical digestion in the small intestine. The brush border's cells also release enzymes like aminopeptidase and dipeptidase, which further disassemble peptide chains.

How are lipids metabolized?

A balanced diet keeps lipid intake to no more than 35% of total calories. Triglycerides, which are composed of a glycerol molecule coupled to three fatty acid chains, are the most prevalent dietary lipids. Additionally, very few levels of phospholipids and dietary cholesterol are eaten. Lingual lipase, gastric lipase, and pancreatic lipase are the three lipases that break down lipids. But since the pancreas is the only organ that produces any significant amounts of lipase, almost all lipid digestion takes place in the small intestine. Each triglyceride is broken down by pancreatic lipase into two free fatty acids and a monoglyceride. Both short-chain (less than 10 to 12 carbons) and long-chain fatty acids are present in the fatty acids.

How are nucleic acids metabolized?

The majority of the foods you eat include the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. They are broken down by two different forms of pancreatic nuclease: deoxyribonuclease, which breaks down DNA, and ribonuclease, which breaks down RNA. Two intestinal brush border enzymes (nucleosidase and phosphatase) further break down the nucleotides created by this digestion into pentoses, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases that can be absorbed through the alimentary canal wall.

The meal enters the big intestine after your body has completed digesting it and absorbing its nutrients. The fecal matter is generated by this organ drawing water out of the digestive juices. The only components of your food left at this phase are those that your body was unable to digest or absorb. One food item that endures during the entire digestive process is fiber. Before they are naturally sent to your anus by contractions, feces can stay in your large intestine for one to two days.

Baking Chemistry

 Even if you might not consider chemistry when baking a cake, the procedure is undoubtedly founded in chemistry. Regardless of the type of food you bake, the basic ingredients are involved in a number of chemical processes that combine various materials to create the finished product.

Baking is undoubtedly a more specialized kind of food manufacturing than other, more well-known ones. However, 82% of all meals in the United States are prepared at home, and a sizable proportion of these necessitate the use of an oven or other dry heating gear, according to data by the National Purchase Diary Panel (NPD). This routine cooking technique takes a lot of effort and preparation to carry out.

Baking is chemically based since it depends on the interactions of different chemicals in ingredients. The science of baking can be reduced to a series of chemical processes. The definition of a chemical reaction, also known as a chemical change, is "a process in which one or more chemicals transform into new substances" (Buthelezi 1010). Protein binding, leavening, Maillard reactions, and caramelization are the four main reactions in baking (Baker).

Maillard Reactions

When proteins and carbohydrates are broken down and rearranged by high temperatures, Maillard reactions take place. These proteins and sugars can be obtained from flour alone or can be improved by adding eggs and sweets. The processes generate organic chemicals in the form of rings, which darken the surface of baked dough. Toasty and savory smells and flavor chemicals are also produced via Maillard reactions. Additionally, these substances interact with one another, creating even more intricate flavors and fragrances.

Agent of leavening

Baking powder's primary function is as a leavening agent. To add volume and lighten the texture of baked goods, a mixture of carbonate or bicarbonate and a weak acid is utilized. A substitute that can be used similarly is baking soda, which is also known to most people. In particular, when you're prepared to start baking and discover you're out of baking powder. But the chemistry that underlies it differs. Baking soda, or sodium bicarbonate, combines with the acidic ingredients in batters to release carbon dioxide, which causes the batter to expand and give it its distinctive texture and grain. Sodium bicarbonate is frequently mixed with calcium acid phosphate, sodium aluminum phosphate, or cream of tartar in baking powder formulations. 

By enlarging the air bubbles introduced into batters and dough by mixing, beating, whipping, stirring, and kneading, all chemical leaveners elevate and aerate them. The gluten structure generated in the batter traps these millions of bubbles, which are then inflated by the leavener when it is either activated by moisture or heat. To obtain a neutral pH, you typically want to balance the leavening system.

Protein fusion

Glutenin and gliadin, two proteins contained in flour, are used in baking to form protein bonds. When water is added to flour, as when forming the dough, these two proteins unite to form a link. Gluten is created when these two proteins bind to one another (Baker). Gluten will change into a thick, gooey, and elastic substance when used to make dough from wheat flour and water. As a result, the dough will be able to rise to many times its initial height and develop a light texture. So gluten is a key ingredient in baked goods because it gives the proper structure.

Caramelization flavors

The final chemical reaction to take place during baking is caramelization, which happens at around 356 degrees Fahrenheit. High heat triggers the reaction, which results in the release of water that condenses into steam as sugar molecules disintegrate. The early phases of caramelization result in the production of diacetyl, which gives butterscotch-flavored caramel its flavor. The next step is the production of rum-like esters and lactones. Last but not least, the creation of furan molecules results in a nutty flavor, while the creation of the molecule maltol results in a toasted flavor.